As is typical of Achaemenid cities, Persepolis was built on a (partially) artificial platform.
Reliefs of lotus flowers are frequently used on the walls and monuments at Persepolis; A bas-relief from the Apadana Palace depicting Delegations including Lydians and Armenians bringing their famous wine to the king; Achaemenid plaque from Persepolis, kept at the National Museum of Iran; Relief of a Median man at Persepolis; The head of a Lamassu from Persepolis, kept at the National Museum of Iran; The Great Double Staircase at Persepolis; A bas-relief at Persepolis, representing a symbol in Zoroastrianism for Nowruz; The discipline of the reliefs.
East stairway, Apādana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520–465 B.C.E.; An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with Homa (griffin) handles, relief from the eastern stairs of the Apādana in Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520–465 B.C.E. (photo: Aryamahasattva, CC BY-SA 3.0); Bull Capital from Persepolis, Apādana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520–465 B.C.E. (National Museum of Iran; 📸: s1ingshot, CC BY 2.0)
Ancient Persia’s art and architecture form a continuous narrative from the Achaemenid Empire through the Safavid golden age, marked by evolving structural forms and lavish royal patronage. Achaemenid architects laid the foundations with monumental palaces built on grand platforms at capitals like Pasargadae and Persepolis, mixing local and imported influences. “The Achaemenid kings built on a grand scale,” importing craftsmen from throughout their vast empire to create colonnaded palaces, columned pavilions, and formal gardens that celebrated the “King of Kings”. Persepolis (550–330 BCE) epitomizes this style, a terraced complex with soaring tapered columns topped by double-animal protomes and reliefs of the king receiving tribute. These rock-cut reliefs, often carved in profile, and the imposing columned halls (such as the Apadana) became hallmarks of Persian royal architecture and set precedents for order, scale, and decoration in the region.
Ruins of the Apadana Palace; Apadana Palace (East Side), Persepolis; Apadana Palace, Persepolis; Pillar of the Apadana Palace of Susa.
A barrel vaulted iwan at the entrance at the ancient site of Hatra, modern-day Iraq, built c. 50 AD; The Parthian Temple of Charyios in Uruk.
Taq-i Kisra, a remnant of the former Sasanian palace in Ctesiphon; The Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System partly dates back to the Achaemenid era; The Palace of Ardashir, constructed in AD 224 during the Sassanid Dynasty. The building has three large domes, among the oldest examples of such large-scale domes in the World; Khorramabad; Rayen Castle; The Arch of Ctesiphon, is the only visible remaining structure of the Sasanian royal capital city of Ctesiphon; Interior of the Qal'eh Dokhtar. The use of squinches to position the dome on top of a square structure is considered the most significant Sasanian contribution to the Islamic architecture; Bahram Fire Temple.
Ateshgah of Baku in Republic of Azerbaijan; Ardashir I (r. 224–242); Naqsh-e Rostam, Ardashir relief.
Palace at Firuzabad; The Palace of Ardashir; View from the north; View from the south; The iwan; A squinch inside the palace; Interior of main chamber; Main courtyard; The iwan.
Ruins of Arch of Ctesiphon pictured in 1864; Remains of the arch in Ctesiphon in 1932; Remains of the arch in 2022; Remains of the arch in 2008; North end of the arch; Ctesiphon Exhibition at the Museum of Islamic Art in Berlin.
Capitulate rosettes (Leucanthemum and Matricaria sp.). (a) A 12-ray rosette pattern with the characteristic elements of the central disc (by Z. Hosseini); (b) M. chamomilla and its central disk (Tele-Botanica/CC-BY-SA 2.0 FR); (c) Leucanthemum vulgare and its central disk (the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew); (d) M. chamomilla in profile (Tele-Botanica/CC-BY-SA 2.0 FR); the lower aspect of the capitula (e) M. chamomilla and (f) L. vulgare (World Flora Online); (g) rosettes in the scene borders of Apadana Palace in Persepolis (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago); (h) rosettes in the capitula of the column in Susa (Musée du Louvre); (i) rosettes in the Sphinx’s neck, the Gate of All Lands at Persepolis (courtesy by G. Zangari); (j) glazed brick panel, Palace of Darius I, Susa (Musée du Louvre); (k) rosette in profile at the base column (by G. Zangari); and (l,m) rosette from the lower capitula in the base columns of Persepolis (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago).
Nymphaea and Nymphaeaceae flower and fruiting elements. (a) The whole plant of Nymphaea alba (https://tsammalex.clld.org/parameters/nymphaealotus, accessed on 29 September 2023); (b) capsule with the star arrangement on the top and surrounding bracts (https://tsammalex.clld.org/parameters/nymphaealotus, accessed on 29 September 2023); (c) ovary maturation and formation of the upper disk (Botanical Magazine/Curtis); (d) bracts surrounding the fruit (Botanical Magazine/W. Curtis); (1) first stage of the plant as a bud [72] and its representation in some base columns of Persepolis (by G. Zangari); (2) initial flowering of the plant (African Plants/Stefan Dressler) and 4-ray rosette pattern in the dress of archers in Susa (the Metropolitan Museum of Art collection); (3) mature flowering by a small central yellow disk (Wikimedia/Midhun Subhash) and the lotus rosette in the dress of archers in Susa (Musée du Louvre); (4) the transformation of the lotus ovary into fruit shaped as a rosette [72] and its representation in the bracelets of Ahura-Mazda, the Xerxes Tomb of Naqsh-e Rostam (archive of the Pasargadae Research Center); (5) bracts of the first stage of fruit maturation (University of Wisconsin–Madison Botany Department Teaching Collection/Kowal, Robert R.) and its representation in the upper parts of the walls in the Apadana stairs of Persepolis (photo by Z. Hosseini); (6) intermediate stage of fruit maturation (http://www.plantsystematics.org/ accessed on 29 September 2023) and its representation in the columns of Susa (Musée du Louvre); and (7) final stage of fruit maturation with long bracts (http://www.plantsystematics.org/ accessed on 29 September 2023) and its representation in the Apadana stairs of Persepolis (by Z. Hosseini).
Palms and trees in Achaemenid art. (a) The combination of the Asteraceae rosette [A] with the Egyptian lotus [B] to create a date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) [C]; (b) detail of the date palm representation in Persepolis (Courtesy by G. Zangari); (c) the date palm and its stem on the left (the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew); (d) a variation of the date palm, containing some with Egyptian details, from the Palace of Darius I, in the eastern stairway of Persepolis (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago); (e) another variation of the date palm in the Palace of Darius I, in the southern stairway in Persepolis (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago; (f) the Apadana stairs of Persepolis (Courtesy by G. Zangari); (g) Pinus brutia (Texas Tech University/Plant Resources); and (h) the pinecone as a characteristic element.
Ceremonial plants and plant bouquet. (a) Nobles holding ceremonial flowers at the Apadana stairs in Persepolis (all images courtesy by G. Zangari); (b) mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) and its representation in relief, fresh plants, and characteristic elements (Tagton’s Photography/DSCN4984); (c) ephedra (cf. Ephedra vulgaris) and its representation in reliefs and fresh stems (GBIF, Global Biodiversity Information Facility); (d) papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) and its representation in reliefs and its flowering structures (GBIF, Global Biodiversity Information Facility); (e) various representations of the lotus (Nymphaea lotus) and its blooming (African Plants/Stefan Dressler); (f) the Audience Scene in the Treasury, the eastern portico of the courtyard in Persepolis, depicting the king seated on the throne and his son/prince standing behind him, both holding (g) a bouquet of plants (Courtesy of the Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures of the University of Chicago); and (h) the fresh combination of lotus and mandrake as represented in the relief related to bouquet 1—(representation of bouquet 2 in Figure 7g).
The other plants observed in the Achaemenid reliefs in Susa and Persepolis. (a) Myrtus communis (GBIF, Global Biodiversity Information Facility/Aldina Franco) and (b) its representation as two branches twisted together, probably in the head of archers (Musée du Louvre) and its position on the figure; (c) the fruit of Punica granatum (GBIF, Global Biodiversity Information Facility) and (d) its representation in the decoration of the king parasol at Xerxes’s relief in the doorway of his palace at Persepolis; and (e) the plant bouquet of the king (see bouquet 2 in Figure 5f) with two ways of looking it: (f) when separating the details as a combination of the lotus flower (A) with mandrake (B) and (g) when looking at the whole image as a general overview of pomegranate blooming (C).
The fall of Achaemenid rule led to new dynasties. The Parthians (247 BCE–224 CE) introduced hybrid forms: they revived the Persian column porch and Persian-influenced stucco art alongside Hellenistic and Mesopotamian elements. Parthian reliefs emphasize frontality and circularity (as seen at Hatra and Nysa), and their architecture favored domed halls that balanced weight like Parthian fortress layouts. The succeeding Sassanian dynasty (224–651 CE) fully synthesized these strands into an imperial style. Ardashir I (r. 224–242) launched sweeping building projects that replaced Parthian frontality with Achaemenid-style profile sculpture and pioneered the great barrel vault and dome motifs. For example, the palace at Firuzabad was erected within a perfectly circular city plan, and the later palace at Ctesiphon featured the Taq-i Kisra iwan, a monumental brick arch over 25 m wide, the largest single-span vault of its time. Sassanians favored solid brick-and-mortar domes on tall drums and lavish interior decoration. They often adorned palaces and fire temples with polychrome stucco, echoing earlier Achaemenid floral motifs alongside dynamic royal hunt and banquet scenes. Even after the Arab conquest in 651 CE, these Persian structural forms and decorative schemes (domes on pendentives, columns with bracket capitals, and extensive tilework) continued to influence the emerging Islamic architecture of Iran.
Jāmeh Mosque of Nain: The mosque in c. 2008; Exterior view; View of courtyard from the top of the minaret; Summer Shabestan; Winter Shabestan; Mihrab; Minaret; Mihrab; Courtyard
View of the city and Naqsh-e Jahan Square; Si-o-se-pol; Khaju Bridge; Flower Garden of Isfahan; Chehel Sotoun; Shah Mosque; Vank Cathedral.
With the advent of Islam in Iran, early mosques and shrines absorbed Persian traditions into a new religious context. The umayyad and early Abbasid rulers maintained elements of Persian city layouts (for instance, Baghdad’s circular plan echoed Firuzabad) and Persian engineers remained influential. Persian artisans introduced blind arcades, carved stucco, and eventually glazed tile to Islamic ornamentation. The Khorasani style (late 7th–10th c.) of mosque architecture, as seen in early congregational mosques at Nain and Isfahan, preserved large hypostyle halls and simple brick facades. In essence, Persian artistic momentum continued to influence Islamic art and architecture even as court life and religion changed.
Jameh Mosque of Isfahan: The mosque courtyard and iwans, in 2018; Example of hypostyle hall in the mosque today; Southern dome (in front of the mihrab), built in 1086–87 under patronage of Nizam al-Mulk; North dome, built in 1088–89 under patronage of Taj al-Mulk; South iwan of the courtyard (leading to the mihrab chamber); West iwan of the courtyard; Interior and detail of the northern iwan; North iwan of the courtyard; Example of the variety of smaller domes in the hypostyle prayer hall.
Beautiful brick dome in harmony with geometric proportions, Taj-ol-molk Dome, Jamé Mosque of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran (1088-1089) (Alagheband, 2012) .
The arrival of the Seljuks (11th–12th c.) in Iran ushered in an architectural renaissance. The Seljuks institutionalized innovations that remain distinctive: the symmetrical four-iwan mosque (a courtyard flanked by four vaulted halls), exuberant brick-mosaic decoration, and grand domed chambers reserved for the ruler’s maqsura. As UNESCO notes, “the Seljuqs…introduced innovations such as the symmetrical four-iwan layout in mosques”, along with enormous vaulted spaces and complex brickwork. A prime example is the great Friday Mosque of Isfahan. Under Nizam al-Mulk and Malik Shah (r. mid‐11th c.), a humble hypostyle mosque was transformed into a four-iwan plan with monumental south dome and minarets. The Seljuks also popularized the prototype of the domed portico (maqsura) fronting the mihrab; the Isfahan mosque’s “Nizamiyya” dome (built 1086–87) soared on muqarnas squinches. Architecture was built almost entirely in brick, textured by geometric tilework and carved stucco. In urban design, Seljuk planners organized Isfahan around a great new maidan (field or square) bordered by the mosque and royal palace, setting a pattern of open ceremonial space and orthogonal street grids.
Dome of Soltaniyeh; Village of Soltaniyeh and dome in 1969; The dome structure and its six minarets, under restoration by ICHTO; The dome in 2014; The dome in 2010; The dome interior 2010.
The Mongol conquest led to the Ilkhanid era (13th–14th c.), a period of eclectic creativity under Mongol shahs like Ghazan and Öljaitü. Despite early destruction, Mongol patronage soon fueled an artistic surge blending Persian, Chinese, and Islamic influences. As the Met Museum observes, East Asian motifs (cloud bands, dragons, lotus, phoenix) were absorbed into the Perso-Islamic artistic vocabulary and emulated from Anatolia to India. Architecturally, the Ilkhanids embarked on ambitious building campaigns. The Mausoleum of Öljaitü at Soltaniyeh (1302–13), the “Dome of Soltaniyeh”, is “the architectural masterpiece of the period”. Its soaring brick dome (third-largest medieval masonry dome) and polychrome tilework exemplify the Ilkhanid penchant for monumental scale and ornate surfaces. After converting to Islam, Ilkhan rulers also built dozens of new mosques, madrasas, and Sufi shrines across Iran (Ardabil, Isfahan, Natanz, Tabriz, Varamin, Yazd, etc.). At the same time, book arts flourished; Mongol courts commissioned lavish illustrated manuscripts (often Persian epics like the Shahnameh), integrating Chinese perspective and motifs. Thus Ilkhanid art fused Persian traditions with Mongol cosmopolitanism in both architecture and the arts of the book.
Ak-Saray Palace; Mosaic tiles in Ak-Saray Palace.
Bibi Khanum Mosque Exterior; A photograph taken sometime between 1905 and 1915 by color photography pioneer Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii shows the mosque's appearance after its collapse in the earthquake of 1897; Courtyard of the mosque; Stone Koran stand; Western iwan of the mosque; Northern iwan of the mosque; Bibi-Khanym Mausoleum in front of the mosque.
Gur-i Amir mausoleum: Exterior view of the Gur-e Amir; Geometric courtyard surrounding the tomb showing the gate, Iwan, and dome; Gur-e-Amir at night; Inside the mausoleum – deep niches and diverse muqarnas decoration; Back side of the Gur-e-Amir; The tomb of Timur, as photographed by Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky; Wooden gate from the Gur-i Mir, with sculpted decoration, traces of polychromy and micro-mosaics (khatamkari). State Museum of History of Culture of Uzbekistan.
Gawhar Shad Mosque and Tomb; Remaining minaret of the Gawhar Shad madrasa, and Gawhar Shad Mausoleum; Vaulted ceiling inside the tomb.
The Timurids (late 14th–15th c.) patronized an even grander cultural renaissance. Timur (Tamerlane) and his successors drew craftsmen from across their domains (Transoxiana, Khurasan, Iraq, India), establishing Samarkand and later Herat as cosmopolitan capitals of art. Timurid buildings are noted for grand scale and luxurious tilework. Key monuments include Timur’s capital palaces and Bibi Khanum Mosque (ca. 1398–1405) and the Gur-i Amir mausoleum (1403) in Samarkand, as well as the Gawhar Shad Mosque and Tomb (1417–1428) in Herat. These structures feature vast bulbous double domes on tall drums, flanked by soaring minarets, and are clad in intricate blue and turquoise mosaic tile patterns. Interior vaults display refined geometric ribs and muqarnas squinches. Timur’s successors like Shah Rukh and Abu Sa’id built madrassas and tomb complexes on an unprecedented scale, hallmarks of a style with “monumental scale, multiple minarets, polychromy tilework, and large bulbous double domes”.
Behzād, A miniature painting from the Iskandarnama; The Seduction of Yusuf; Sad'i and the Youth of Kashgar; Beheading of a King; The construction of castle Khavarnaq; Battleground of Timur and the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt; The hunting ground.
Equally momentous was the Timurid contribution to Persian painting. The late 15th-century court at Herat (under Sultan Husayn Bayqara, r. 1470–1506) gave rise to the Herat School, often regarded as “the apogee of Persian painting”. Patronized by Bayqara and his queen Gawhar Shad, illuminators like Behzād produced masterworks of narrative and illumination combining Persian lyrical style with refined figure drawing and perspective. These miniature artists were drawn from across the empire, and their achievements in manuscript illustration (such as exquisitely painted Shahnameh folios) would deeply influence later Safavid and Mughal painters.
Naghsh-e Jahan square, Isfahan; Naqsh-e Jahan at night, 2010; Naqsh-e Jahān Square: Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque (left), Shah Mosque (center) and Ali Qapu Palace (right), 2020; Panoramic view, 2007 or earlier; The Shah Mosque, 2009; The Lotfollah Mosque had a secret entrance that spanned underneath the Maidan, from the Palace on the opposite side of the square, 2003; Bazaar entrance (Qeysarriyeh gate), 2016.
Shah Mosque: The mosque in 2009; Aerial image collage of the Naqsh-e Jahan Square, with the Shah Mosque in the foreground showing the difference in orientation between the entrance and the mosque, 2019; View of the mosque from Naqsh-e Jahan Square; Entrance iwan of the mosque; View from below of the muqarnas over the entrance; Panoramic photo of the entrance vestibule leading to the courtyard; The main domed prayer hall; View of the mihrab (center) and minbar (right) in the main prayer hall; Interior view of the main dome.
Sheikh Lutfallah Mosque: Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque exterior; Interior view; Front view - as seen from the balcony of the Ali Qapu Palace; Interior design detail; Interior wall and ceiling; Interior of the dome; Mihrab; Tiles in the rinceau style; Iwan interior.
Ali Qapu Palace: Exterior view of the palace; Frontal view; Another view of the palace; The Music Hall; Another view of the Music Hall; Ceiling of the Music Hall; Wooden windows on one of the spiral staircases of Ali Qapu Palace; Ceiling in one of the halls.
Qaysari Bazaar in Kurdistan
The Safavid Empire (1501–1736) represents the peak of Persian art and urban design. Shah Abbas I (r. 1588–1629) moved the capital to Isfahan (1590), embarking on an ambitious reconstruction of the city as a Baghshahr or “Garden City”. Wealth from Silk Road trade funded roads, bridges, caravanserais, and thousands of buildings. At the city’s heart lay the Naqsh-e Jahan (“Design of the World”) Square, roughly 160×510 m, deliberately planning worship (Shah Mosque), commemoration (Sheikh Lutfallah Mosque), sovereign power (Ali Qapu Palace), and trade (Qaisariya Bazaar) in one unified complex. Merchants and artisans were resettled here, and a covered bazaar linked the old city to the new royal square. Safavid architects broke from strict Seljuk orthodoxy to pursue a grand polychrome aesthetic. The domed chamber of the Shah Mosque (1611–1630) in Isfahan, for example, soars 50 m high, its interior and façades carpeted with dazzling blue, turquoise and gold tile mosaics. The use of underglazed polychrome tiling became “the most salient characteristic of Iranian architecture,” achieving its zenith in this era. Similarly, the elegant Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque (1603–1619) and Ali Qapu Palace feature lavish faience and muqarnas vaults. Even secular buildings like the Chehel Sotun pavilion (1647) display opulent glazed tile and mirror-work. Together, the Safavids created one of the earliest examples of planned urban design in the Muslim world, a symbolic Garden of Paradise manifested in grand plazas, avenues, gardens and aligned mosques.
Charbagh Gardens At Naqshe Jahan Square In Isfahan Iran; Charbagh Gardens of The Taj Mahal; Charbagh Gardens at Jahangir’s Tomb In Lahore India.
Isfahan’s Chehel Sotun gardens: Day view of the palace; Rear view of the palace; Closer view of the palace; A sculpture in the garden.
Bagh-e Fin: Kashan’s Fin Garden.
Finally, Persian garden design crowns this historical sweep. The concept of the chahar-bagh (“four-garden”), a walled garden subdivided by axial water channels, dates back to Achaemenid paradises (Old Persian pairidaeza, meaning “enclosure” or paradise) unearthed at sites like Pasargadae. These layouts, often with a central pavilion and reflecting pool, symbolized cosmic order: two perpendicular water-axes dividing the space into four quarters represents the Zoroastrian and Quranic vision of paradise and the four elements. Water channels both irrigated and mirrored the sky, while cypress and fruit trees suggested eternity and bounty. Over millennia, the formal garden became a portable miniature cosmos; an earthly sacred space embodying the cosmos and ideal sovereignty. Safavid gardens like Isfahan’s Chehel Sotun gardens and Kashan’s Fin Garden exemplify this heritage, with symmetrical pools and pavilions evoking a paradise on earth. In sum, Persian gardens synthesize Iran’s artistic legacy, uniting ancient cosmology with Islamic metaphor, and serve as a fitting capstone to a tradition that spans empires and faiths.
Assasi, Reza. Pardis/Paradise: Cosmic Symbolism in Persian Gardens and Its Cultural and Spiritual Echoes. Architecture, Culture, and Spirituality Forum, 18 May 2024, https://acsforum.org/pardis-paradise-cosmic-symbolism-in-persian-gardens. Accessed 17 March 2025.
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Golombek, Lisa, and Renata Holod. Isfahan, Urban History Project. Aga Khan Documentation Center, MIT, https://archnet.org/collections/47. Accessed 17 March 2025.
Kampar, Firouzeh, and Reza Abbasi. Silk Roads Programme: Isfahan. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/115. Accessed 17 March 2025.
Komaroff, Linda, and Suzan Yalman. The Art of the Ilkhanid Period (1256–1353). Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oct. 2001, https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ilkh/hd_ilkh.htm. Accessed 17 March 2025.
“Persian Gardens, Chahar Bagh, Pairidaeza, Baghs.” Heritage Institute, https://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/gardens/index.htm. Accessed 17 March 2025.
Seljuk Architecture. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Wikimedia Foundation, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seljuk_architecture. Accessed 17 March 2025.
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I've studied Islamic architecture as an architect and design professor but many of these images are new to me. Love the way you've arranged the images
Generous and comprehensive!