Blood, Silk, and Empire: The Mughal Court in Full Regalia

Part Two

Man's Morning Coat, Mughal India, 1700-1750; Young Babur seeks his grandmother Aisan Daulat Begum's advice, c. 1590–1592.

Jahangir miniature portrait, Mughal India, early 1600s During the reign of Akbar, the typical Mughal turban was popularized which was wrapped directly on the head as it lacked a Karakul hat and involved a tight bundle in the front and an ascending slope backwards so that it bulged near the back. A turban band or sash was wrapped across the turban to keep it in place, which was usually made of a different material than the turban itself.

Portrait of Murad Bakhsh (1624–1661), Mughal India, attributed to Balchand.

Ceremony for Arkbar's sons ca.1551–1602. Dancing women with Karakul/Boqta hats, Jama/Peshwaj style robes, and veils.

Depiction of Mariam-uz-Zamani giving birth to Jahangir.

Part of a sari, silk and metal thread, 18th-19th century, Aurangabad, India; Fragment of a Turban Cloth, early 19th century, Rajasthan, India; Hand painted Indian cotton fabric, chintz panel, 1700–1800, India; Sash (Patka) with a Floral Border, India, second half 17th century; Portrait of Suraj Singh Rathor, Raja of Marwar and Maternal Uncle of Shah Jahan: A Page from the Prince Khurram Album; Mughal imperial court guards during the reign of Shah Jahan, 1656–1657; Portrait of Philip Baldaeus dressed in Mughal robes and a checkered turban, 1668; The emperor Akbar Shah II in Durbar by Ghulam Murtaza Khan Musavvir, 1810.

Mughal emperors clothed themselves in the finest fabrics to manifest imperial glory. The court’s wardrobes featured ultra-fine muslins (especially Bengal cottons) prized for their softness and coolness as much as for luxury. Sumptuous brocades woven with silk and metal threads signaled wealth: gold- and silver-brocaded textiles often adorned royal garments and diplomatic gifts. Indeed, silk and gold-woven cloth “circulated between geographically and religiously distinct courtly spaces,” forming a shared luxury culture. European and Central Asian imports supplemented local weaving: the Mughals collected rare silks from Iran, Turkey, Europe, and the Far East. These fabrics typically bore dense floral and arabesque patterns, reflecting Mughal aesthetic tastes and cross-cultural influences. The extreme fineness of muslin and the ornate relief of brocade epitomized Mughal sartorial craftsmanship and reinforced the court’s status.

Mughal jewelled dagger

Dagger with Scabbard Indian, Mughal 1605–27.

Gem set jade-hilted Khanjar with Scabbard, ca. late 1700 to 1725, Christie’s, New York, NY, USA; Gem set jade-hilted Khanjar, ca. late 1775 to 1790, Christie’s, New York, NY, USA; Gem set Khanjar, ca. 18th century, Christie’s, New York, NY, USA; Ivory-hilted horse-head Khanjar, ca. 1800, Christie’s, New York, NY, USA; Gem set Khanjar, ca. 1700 to 1800, Museum of Islamic Arts, Doha, Qatar.

Vessel in the form of a Mango India (Mughal) 18th century; Gold spoon set with diamonds, rubies and emeralds, about 1600, Mughal; Gold thumb ring set with emeralds and rubies and enamelled on the inside, 1600 – 50, Mughal; Water vessel, cast golden alloy, engraved and filled with black composition, about 1580 – 1600, Mughal; Left to right: Ewer and salver, mother-of-pearl with metal pins, about 1600 – 25, Gujurat.

Beyond textiles, Mughal opulence showed in precious metalwork and jewels. The imperial treasury abounded in gem-studded objects – swords, daggers, and ornamental vessels – often serving as regalia or state gifts. Exhibitions note that Mughal artisans mastered kundan gem-setting (pure gold foil around stones) and carved hardstones like jade and crystal. A dagger handle is carved from jade and inlaid with flush-mounted rubies is a classic Mughal combination. The Mughal “jeweled dagger” tradition included hilts of pure gold encrusted with thousands of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, literally proclaiming imperial wealth. Metal vessels and weapon fittings were hammered in relief (gilded or damascened), and richly enameled in vivid colors. As one curator observes, the Mughal court’s reputation for wealth and artistry was “epitomized in the jeweled arts,” which circulated lavishly at court. In sum, Mughal metal and jewelry work combined sophisticated techniques (inlay, enameling, carving) with precious materials to serve as visible symbols of status and technical prowess.

Charbagh at Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, India; Aerial view of the charbagh of the Taj Mahal, Agra, India, showing the square basin at the intersection of four waterways; View of one charbagh garden of the Shalamar Gardens, Lahore, Pakistan, displaying the typical charbagh layout.

Mir Sayyid Ali, the prophet Elias (Elijah) rescuing Prince Nur ad-Dahr from drowning in a river, from the Akbar Hamzanama.

The earliest known example of a Mughal painting, Princes of the House of, Timur (c. 1550-55), is attributed to Abd al-Samad. It was probably executed for Humayun, and added to under later emperors to update the family tree. Painted with gouache and gold on fine cotton fabric; Abd al-Samad, miniature of 1588; Arghan Div Brings the Chest of Armour to Hamza, from Volume 7 of the Hamzanama, supervised by Samad.

From its inception, Mughal style was deeply rooted in Persian and Central Asian precedent. The first emperor, Babur, consciously modeled his estates on the Timurid (Iranian) tradition; he “constructed new buildings and laid out gardens in the geometric Iranian style” (e.g. charbagh quadrilateral gardens). This Persian garden aesthetic, with water channels and symmetric flower beds, became a signature of Mughal palaces (e.g. Humayun’s Tomb, Shalimar Gardens). In painting, the influence was direct. Akbar’s court employed Iranian master painters (like Mir Sayyid ‘Ali and ‘Abd al‑Ṣamad), who brought fine brushwork, saturated color, and Persian compositional formats. Mughal miniatures inherited vertical formats, high viewpoints, and intricate ornamentation from Safavid art, while blending in Indian naturalism. Even Mughal royal iconography (halos, idyllic paradisiacal scenery) echoed Persian court imagery. In architecture, Perso-Islamic motifs were ubiquitous: mosques and mausolea featured the pishtaq arch, bulbous domes, and glazed tile revetments. Under Shah Jahan, lavish polychrome tile decoration – with floral motifs and Persian inscriptions – adorned garden pavilions and gateways in Lahore and Kashmir. Thus Mughal art and gardens represent a syncretic Indo-Persian aesthetic, inheriting Iranian forms (from script to garden layout) and adapting them to India’s local materials and craftsmanship.

Kitab-i fi al-tibb al-mansuri by Muhammad Zakariya al-Razi, early 16th century; Flyleaf; EndLeaf; Nushirvan and his Prime Minster Dastur; "Thirty-second night" of the Tales of a Parrot, showing Kaiwan, Latif, and Sharif, accompanied by Utarid, at the place of Khurshid who has taken to the life of a devotee; Sūz va gudāz (Burning and melting) by Nawʿī Khabūshānī.

Attributed to Manohar (active ca. 1582–1624) or Basawan; Mid 18th century, late Mughal, Muhammad Shah period Mother Mary and Child Christ; Mughal depiction of the Virgin Mary and Jesus, c 1630; Deccani School Adoration of the Christ Child, ca. 1630; Possibly painted in Bijapur The presentation of the infant Jesus in the temple at Jerusalem, 40 days after his birth, c. 1600-1610; Virgin and Child dating to 1600-25. Mary is happily watching over an exploratory baby Jesus, who holds her hand and grasps flowers; Probably Bundi, Rajasthan, India, c. 18th century The Virgin Mary and the Miracle of Changing Water into Wine; A crucifixion, with the Virgin and Saint Anne from Akbar's court, c.1600 Aga Khan Museum; Dastan-i Masih The ascension of Jesus in the guise of a priest, c. 1602-05.

Jahangir’s reign saw European imagery and techniques enter Mughal art through trade and missionary contacts. The emperor avidly collected Western oil paintings and prints, exposing his atelier to Renaissance conventions. He explicitly encouraged his court painters to adopt chiaroscuro (light-and-shade modeling) and linear perspective. Indeed, scholars note that Jahangir “supported artists who mastered the techniques of European chiaroscuro and perspective,” blending these into Mughal illumination. The result was more naturalistic portraiture and three-dimensional space than in earlier Mughal work. One sees this in Jahangir’s own posthumous portraits and in studies of animals and plants, which display Western-style shading. Christian iconography also briefly appeared, for instance, Mughal miniatures of Biblical scenes, though integrated subtly. In sum, European influence under Jahangir enriched Mughal painting’s realism and depth without supplanting its core Persianate style.

Akbar-nama: The first volume of Akbarnama deals with the birth of Akbar, the history of Timur's family and the reigns of Babur and Humayun and the Suri sultans of Delhi. An Attempt on Akbar's life in Delhi in 1564; Akbar's mother travels by boat to Agra, Victoria and Albert Museum.

Akbar-nama: The third volume, called the Ā’īn-i-Akbarī, describes the administrative system of the Empire as well as containing the famous "Account of the Hindu Sciences". Akbar on a hunt; Mughal Emperor Akbar crossing the river at night.

The Hamzanama  or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza narrates the legendary exploits of Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib, an uncle of Muhammad. "The Spy Zanbur Bringing Mahiyya to the City of Tawariq", from the Akbar Hamzanama; Mir Sayyid Ali, the prophet Elias (Elijah) rescuing Prince Nur ad-Dahr from drowning in a river, from the Akbar Hamzanama; Battle of Mazandaran, number 38 in the 7th volume of the Hamzanama, as inscribed between the legs of the man in the bottom center. The protagonists Khwajah 'Umar and Hamzah and their armies engage in fierce battle. Originally, the faces were depicted; these were subsequently erased by iconoclasts, and repainted in more recent times, from the Akbar Hamzanama; This illustration shows the witch Anqarut in the guise of a beautiful young woman, who hopes to seduce the handsome king Malik Iraj, whom she has captured and tied to a tree, from the Akbar Hamzanama; Assad Ibn Kariba Launches a Night Attack on the Camp of Malik Iraj"; The painting depicts a devoted spy named Umar hired by Hamza, who discovers a hidden pathway to the Castle of Furad.

The Art of the Mughals after 1600 Jahangir’s claim that he could instantly recognize any painter’s work is a reflection of the rise of the individual artist. "Arjuna Battles Raja Tamradhvaja", Folio from a Razmnama 'Abd al-Rahim ibn Muhammad Bairam Khan Khan-i Khanan ca. 1616–17; "The Emperor Shah Jahan with his Son Dara Shikoh", Folio from the Shah Jahan Album Nanha Mir 'Ali Haravi verso: ca. 1620; recto: ca. 1530–50; The Art of the Mughals after 1600 Jahangir’s claim that he could instantly recognize any painter’s work is a reflection of the rise of the individual artist."Shah Jahan on Horseback", Folio from the Shah Jahan Album Payag Mir 'Ali Haravi verso: ca. 1630; recto: ca. 1530–50; Album Leaf with Shi'a Invocation 17th century; The Goddess Bhairavi Devi with Shiva Payag ca. 1630–35; Preparations for a Hunt ca. 1680; Chand Bibi Hawking with Attendants in a Landscape ca. 1700; The Emperor Aurangzeb Carried on a Palanquin Bhavanidas ca. 1705–20; Prince and Ladies in a Garden Nidha Mal mid-18th century.

Imperial patronage was central to Mughal art’s flourishing. Emperors and high nobles did not merely buy art, they became its directors and visionaries. As one study argues, Mughal rulers “understood the aesthetic as a crucial element of governance,” using art to assert power and project an imperial identity. Akbar (r. 1556–1605) spearheaded a systematic policy: he gathered Hindu and Muslim craftsmen alike into royal karkhanas and commissioned monumental manuscripts and palaces. Under Akbar’s guidance, thousands of artisans illustrated the Akbar-nama and Hamzanama, blending indigenous and Persian elements into a new Mughal idiom. Jahangir (r. 1605–27) continued this by favoring naturalism, personally reviewing portraits and botanical paintings and sanctioning the use of European techniques. Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58) then poured enormous resources into architecture and decorative arts: his projects (the Taj Mahal, Lahore Fort, etc.) employed advanced pietra dura inlay, carved marble screens, and resplendent textiles to realize an idealized imperial vision. Crucially, Mughal patrons actively supervised creation: they “reviewed sketches, selecting materials, and issuing directives” in the workshop. Through this hands-on sponsorship, rulers ensured that every stroke of the brush or chisel reinforced Mughal grandeur and innovation.

All 📸 courtesy of Shaopeng. Adorning the walls of the Taj Mahal, intricate stone inlays breathe life into ornate vegetal designs and Arabic calligraphy, transforming the marble canvas into a mesmerising visual feast; Inside the Agra Fort, the throne pavilion at Diwan-i-Am offers a stunning showcase of the art of stone inlay seamlessly integrated into the marble architecture, adding a distinctive Mughal aesthetic to the structure; Take a closer look at the stone-inlaid vegetal designs adorning the columns of the Musamman Burj, an octagonal tower located near Shah Jahan’s private hall, Diwan-e-Khas, within Agra Fort; As if penned by the hand of a master calligrapher, the Arabic script gracing the facade of the Taj Mahal is, in reality, meticulously inlaid with hardstones, showcasing an interdisciplinary fusion of the arts; The “Orpheus placques” at the Diwan-i-Am in Delhi’s historic Red Fort showcase exquisite examples of pietra dura in the Florentine tradition, featuring intricate depictions of flora and fauna; The outer wall of the Jama Masjid in Agra is a prime example of the “inlay” technique, illustrating how leaf-shaped hardstones in contrasting white and black hues fill the sockets cut into a red sandstone base; Admire the intricate stone-inlaid floral designs gracing the tower of the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah, often referred to as a “jewel box” for its exquisite beauty; A rich palette of earthy-toned stones adorns the dado, or lower part, of the Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah in Agra; In addition to sinuous vegetal motifs, geometric patterns like the chevron can also be found adorning the dado of the Taj Mahal.

Shallow bowl in the shape of a flower India 17th–18th century; The hilt of green nephrite in the form of a horse’s head set with rubies in gold; Jade bowl made from mottled dark green nephrite; Jade Mirror in the Form of a Leaf.

Bandhej Saree; Bandhani; Bandhani sari; Bandhani Dupatta; Bandhani Dupatta.

Mughal artisans employed sumptuous materials and sophisticated techniques in all media. The most famous example is the marble inlay work of Shah Jahan’s era; pure white Makrana marble was carved and inlaid with colored pietra dura stones to form floral arabesques and calligraphy. One can see black marble letters and flower patterns flush with the Taj Mahal’s façade. Beyond marble, craftsmen carved jade and crystal into vessels and decorative boxes, often mounting them with gems, Mughal courts prized Chinese jade and Central Asian nephrite for this purpose. In metalwork, techniques flourished; precious alloys were chased and damascened with gold, and the famed kundan setting surrounded gems with thin gold foil. Enamel decoration added brilliant polychromy to metal and porcelain pieces. In painting and book art, artists used finely ground opaque pigments (watercolors) with gold leaf on burnished cotton or paper. Wood and leather carving (jalis, book covers) employed intricate geometric and floral motifs. In textiles, Mughal weavers perfected tie-dye (bandhani) and elaborate brocade with gold threads. Taken together, this mastery of diverse materials – marble, precious stones, metals, pigments, and textiles, allowed Mughal decorative art to achieve unprecedented elegance. The legacy is global: even today designs inspired by Mughal inlay, calligraphy and floral patterns appear in architecture and crafts worldwide.

Padshahnama plate 10 : Shah Jahan receives his three eldest sons and Asaf Khan during his accession ceremonies (8 March 1628).

The Mughal imperial workshops produced several masterful artists and architects. In painting, ‘Abd al‑Ṣamad (b. Shiraz, mid-16th c.) was a towering figure; he served Humayun and Akbar and essentially trained a generation of painters. He co-directed the royal atelier and “was personal tutor to the young Akbar”. Under Abd al‑Ṣamad’s leadership, the huge Hamzanama (legends of Amir Hamza) project was completed: ten volumes, over a thousand large miniatures that blended Indian and Persian styles into the new Mughal manner. This fusion defined Mughal painting. Later, artists like Abu’l-Hasan (Jahangir’s favorite) and Bichitr (Shah Jahan’s court painter) achieved fame for their refined royal portraits. In architecture, the chief names include Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, the principal architect of the Taj Mahal, and Inayat Khan (designer of the Taj’s gardens). Lahauri in particular rose to high esteem: as one scholar notes, “Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, believed to be the chief architect of the Taj Mahal, earned royal recognition” for his design genius. These figures illustrate that Mughal artistic excellence was not anonymous. Master painters and architects became legendary at court, blending the diverse influences of the empire into enduring masterpieces.

Mughal arts peaked under Shah Jahan and then waned under Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), whose wars and austerity drained the treasury. By the end of Aurangzeb’s reign the empire was at its largest extent but greatly impoverished; after 1707 it fragmented into regional states. Successor courts in Delhi, Awadh, and provincial capitals did continue Mughal artistic conventions, but on a reduced scale. None could match the imperial workshops’ earlier lavishness. Nonetheless, the aesthetic legacy was profound. “The Mughal Empire is remembered for its visual grandeur; majestic architecture, exquisite paintings, luxurious textiles, and ornate jewelry”. Mughal motifs and techniques survived in Rajput, Sikh, and Deccani art. In the colonial period, Indo-Saracenic architecture explicitly revived Mughal arches and domes. Today Mughal-era art draws global admiration: UNESCO sites like the Taj Mahal are iconic, and contemporary Indian textiles and jewelry still echo Mughal designs. While the Mughal state ended, its fusion of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian art continues to influence culture in South Asia and beyond.

Mughal art represented both continuity and innovation relative to earlier Indian traditions. Pre-Mughal North Indian painting (e.g. Sultanate manuscript illumination, Rajput miniature art) was typically devotional or courtly in a more localized idiom. Akbar’s workshops deliberately merged these indigenous elements with imported styles: as one historian notes, Akbar “welcomed Hindu and Muslim artisans alike, blending indigenous and Persian influences into a distinct Mughal idiom”. Thus Mughal miniatures, while secular and naturalistic, incorporated narrative motifs from local folklore as well as formal devices from Persia. Likewise, Mughal architecture added Persian and Timurid forms (charbagh gardens, bulbous domes, iwans) to the subcontinent’s repertoire. Earlier Hindu temple and sultanate architecture had different forms (shikharas, corbelled arches). Yet the Mughal style did not erase its context: artisans still used local materials (sandstone, marble) and flower motifs echoing native art. In summary, Mughal arts can be seen as a synthesis: they introduced new elements (European perspective, Persian gardens) into a South Asian framework, creating innovations that stood out from but also respectfully built upon India’s artistic heritage.

References:

Abd al‑Ṣamad. Akbar and a Dervish. ca. 1580–90, opaque watercolor on paper. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Houghteling, Sylvia. The Emperor’s Humble Clothes: Textures of Courtly Dress in Seventeenth-Century South Asia. Ars Orientalis, vol. 33, 2003, pp. 90–111.

Metropolitan Museum of Art. Treasury of the World: Jeweled Arts of India in the Age of the Mughals. Exhibition overview, 2001, www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2001/jeweled-arts-of-mughal-india.

Sah, Archana Kumari. The Art of Empire: A Critical Analysis of Mughal Artisans and Their Cultural Legacy. International Journal of History, vol. 6, no. 1C, Jan. 2024, pp. 188–197, doi:10.22271/27069109.2024.v6.i1c.449.

Sardar, Marika. Indian Textiles: Trade and Production. Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Oct. 2003, www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/intx/hd_intx.htm.

Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. Fragment of a Textile (India, Mughal Empire, mid-17th century). VMFA Collections, vmfa.museum/explore/collection/object/textile-68-8-156/.

Victoria and Albert Museum. The Arts of the Mughal Empire. V&A Museum Collections, www.vam.ac.uk/articles/the-arts-of-the-mughal-empire.